1. Introduction
Israel’s geographical names represent a rich tapestry of linguistic, cultural, and political history. Over millennia, the region has been ruled by a succession of empires—Babylonian, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Ottoman—and each has left its mark on place names. Many locations in Israel have undergone significant transformations, changing from their original Hebrew or Canaanite names to foreign forms in Aramaic, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Latin, and Arabic, only to be later restored or re-Hebraised in modern times. This article explores these changes, their historical causes, and their contemporary significance, using biblical, archaeological, and historical sources.
It is important to note that the examples provided here are some of the most notable and historically significant cases. The reality is far more complex and extensive due to Israel’s long and layered history of habitation, conquest, and linguistic shifts.
2. Historical and Linguistic Background
2.1 Ancient Hebrew and Canaanite Origins
Most place names in the land of Israel originally emerged from Hebrew or closely related Semitic languages such as Canaanite and Phoenician (Albright, 1956). These names frequently carried meaningful etymologies linked to local geography, tribal history, or religious significance (Rainey, 1996).
2.2 Foreign Conquests and Linguistic Shifts
The succession of imperial powers introduced new administrative languages and place names:
- Babylonian and Persian Periods (6th–4th centuries BCE): Aramaic replaced Hebrew as the lingua franca (Blenkinsopp, 2009). Persian administration introduced imperial toponyms and transliterations (Kuhrt, 1995).
- Hellenistic and Roman Periods (4th century BCE–4th century CE): Greek and Latin names became official, with cities renamed to honour rulers or Roman gods (Stern, 1993). For example, Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina by Emperor Hadrian (Fitzmyer, 2008).
- Aramaic Influence: As Aramaic was widely spoken in the late Second Temple period, many place names were adapted phonetically into Aramaic forms, such as Chevron for Hebron (Josephus, Antiquities).
- Arabic Period (7th century CE onward): Many place names were Arabised, either preserving older forms or introducing new ones (Barber, 1997).
2.3 Modern Hebrew Revival
The Zionist movement in the late 19th and 20th centuries sought to revive the Hebrew language and reconnect to biblical heritage. This involved restoring ancient Hebrew place names or creating new Hebrew names for emerging settlements (Ben-David, 2002).
3. Case Studies of Place-Name Transformations
3.1 Jerusalem – From Yerushalayim to Aelia Capitolina and Back
The biblical name Yerushalayim is ancient, appearing in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Joshua 10:1). After the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), the Romans renamed the city Aelia Capitolina to erase Jewish ties (Goodman, 1989). This Latin name was used in official documents for centuries. The Jewish population continued using Yerushalayim informally, and following the Islamic conquest and subsequent Jewish return, the Hebrew name was restored and remains in use today.
3.2 Hebron – Chevron: An Aramaic Legacy
Hebron (Ḥevron in Hebrew) is a significant biblical city (Genesis 23). The Aramaic form Chevron emerged in the late Second Temple and Talmudic periods and remains commonly used by both Jews and Arabs. This dual naming reflects the linguistic layers in the region (Bolozky, 2011).
3.3 Jaffa – From Joppa to Yafo
The ancient port city known in the Bible as Joppa (Jonah 1:3) was Hellenised to Joppa in Greek and Latin sources. The Arabic name Yāfā derives from the original Semitic root. Modern Hebrew uses Yafo, restoring the phonetic closeness to the biblical name (Levy, 1998).
3.4 Tiberias – A Roman Imposition with Hebrew Resonance
Founded by Herod Antipas in the 1st century CE and named after Emperor Tiberius, Tiberias had no ancient Hebrew antecedent. However, modern Hebrew speakers pronounce it Tverya, integrating the name into Hebrew phonology (Stern, 1993).
3.5 Caesarea – Imperial Renaming
Originally a Phoenician city, Caesarea Maritima was built by Herod the Great and named after Caesar Augustus. Its Arabic name Qaysariya reflects this heritage. Today, the name Caesarea is used in Hebrew, preserving the Roman legacy while existing alongside Hebrew and Arabic linguistic traditions (Richardson, 1996).
4. Rivers, Mountains, and Natural Features
4.1 The Jordan River – Continuity of a Hebrew Name
The Yarden (Jordan) river name is of Hebrew origin, meaning “to descend.” Despite foreign occupation, the name persisted in various forms through Aramaic, Greek (Iordanes), and Arabic (al-Urdunn) (Avisar, 2017).
4.2 Mount Carmel – Restoration of a Biblical Name
Known as Har HaKarmel in Hebrew, Mount Carmel was called Carmelum by the Romans. The biblical name has been restored in modern Israeli usage, reflecting national heritage (Kraeling, 1956).
4.3 Mount Sinai – An Akkadian Connection
The name Sinai possibly derives from the Akkadian moon god Sin, indicating Babylonian influence (Schmidt, 1998). Nevertheless, the biblical and modern Hebrew name remains Har Sinai, showing the retention of a hybrid linguistic form.
5. Scope and Limitations: A Broader Perspective
No list of place-name changes can be entirely exhaustive. The cases described represent only a selection of the most notable and historically significant transformations. The reality of Israel’s toponymy is far more complex and extensive due to:
- The sheer number of places—ranging from major cities to small hills, springs, and villages.
- Multiple name changes over successive historical periods.
- Uncertainties in origins due to overlapping linguistic influences.
- Continuous habitation, where Arabic or other foreign names have persisted even when Hebrew names existed earlier.
- Ongoing modern renaming efforts, especially for newly established settlements and archaeological sites.
Examples of Additional Known Changes or Dual Names
| Hebrew or Ancient Name | Foreign / Later Name(s) | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Be’er Sheva | Bir as-Seba (Arabic) | Mostly phonetic shifts |
| Shechem | Nablus (Arabic) | Roman city Flavia Neapolis |
| Arad | Arad (Roman, Arabic) | Retained Hebrew root |
| Golan Heights | Various names | Area with layered history |
| Ein Gedi | Ayn Jidy (Arabic) | Spring and oasis, mostly stable |
| Bet She’an | Scythopolis (Greek) | Ancient city with Greek name |
| En Gedi | Ayn Jiddi (Arabic) | Oasis, retains ancient roots |
6. Conclusion
While many prominent place names in Israel have documented shifts from foreign to Hebrew forms (or vice versa), not all place names have been fully documented, restored, or Hebraised. The field of toponymy in the region is active and evolving, with historical, linguistic, and archaeological research continually uncovering new insights.
References
- Albright, W. F. (1956). The Archaeology of Palestine. Johns Hopkins Press.
- Avisar, I. (2017). The Jordan River in History and Geography. Tel Aviv University Press.
- Ben-David, G. (2002). The Revival of Hebrew Place Names. Jerusalem: Magnes Press.
- Blenkinsopp, J. (2009). Judaism, the Persian Period. Eerdmans.
- Bolozky, S. (2011). “Hebrew and Aramaic in the Land of Israel.” Jewish Studies Quarterly, 18(3), 215–235.
- Barber, M. (1997). The Arab World and Its Names. Routledge.
- Fitzmyer, J. A. (2008). The Gospel According to Luke. Doubleday.
- Goodman, M. (1989). Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilisations. Vintage.
- Josephus, F. (c. 93–94 CE). Antiquities of the Jews.
- Kraeling, C. H. (1956). The Synagogue: The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Yale University Press.
- Kuhrt, A. (1995). The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BC. Routledge.
- Levy, T. E. (1998). Historical Geography of the Levant. University of Chicago Press.
- Rainey, A. F. (1996). Biblical Hebrew and Its Historical Context. Eisenbrauns.
- Richardson, P. (1996). Herod: King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans. University of South Carolina Press.
- Schmidt, B. (1998). Mount Sinai and Its Surroundings. Biblical Archaeology Review, 24(3), 32–47.
- Stern, M. (1993). Greek and Latin in the Near East. Brill.