4: Cultural and Political Backdrop – Egypt, Sinai, and Roman-Occupied Judea

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The Ten Commandments and the Teachings of Jesus: A Theological, Cultural, and Political Exposition

1. Introduction

To properly understand the Ten Commandments and the teachings of Jesus, one must examine the cultural and political contexts in which these laws were delivered and reinterpreted. The law given at Mount Sinai arose in the aftermath of Israel’s deliverance from Egypt, while Jesus taught and fulfilled the law in a land dominated by Roman imperialism and fractured religious authority. These contrasting but equally charged settings highlight the enduring moral vision of God amidst changing political powers, cultural pressures, and societal norms.

2. Egypt and the Exodus: The Background to Sinai

The Ten Commandments were given shortly after the Exodus from Egypt, where Israel had lived under Pharaoh’s oppressive regime (Exod. 1–14). Egypt’s political system was one of divine kingship, where Pharaoh was considered a god and the population lived under authoritarian rule, forced labour, and religious pluralism.

“I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.”
— Exodus 20:2

This preamble to the Ten Commandments is deeply political: it anchors divine law in liberation from tyranny, establishing Yahweh not only as Creator but as Liberator and Covenant King. Israel’s identity is now rooted in covenantal freedom, not in imperial subjugation.

Thus, the commandments are countercultural:

  • No other gods: rejection of Egyptian polytheism
  • No images: contrast to Egyptian idol worship
  • Sabbath: freedom from endless labour
  • Honour of parents and protection of life: dignity of persons over state systems

3. Mount Sinai: Covenant in the Wilderness

Sinai, as the place of divine encounter, is a liminal space—a political and cultural transition zone between slavery and nationhood. Israel is no longer Egyptian property but not yet a settled kingdom. The law given here forms the foundation of a theocratic community governed by Yahweh Himself.

The cultural significance of Sinai includes:

  • Law before land: Israel receives divine instruction before inheriting territory, placing obedience above nationalism.
  • Equality before God: Unlike Egyptian hierarchy, the Decalogue applies equally to all—leaders and commoners, men and women, even resident foreigners (Exod. 20:10).
  • Moral over military power: Israel is to be governed by righteousness, not might.

This model contrasts sharply with other ancient Near Eastern law codes (e.g. the Code of Hammurabi), which often prioritised social order over spiritual covenant.

4. Judea Under Roman Rule: The Context of Jesus

By the time of Jesus, the land of Israel was under the rule of the Roman Empire. The region was politically fragmented:

  • Judea was a Roman province ruled by Herodian puppets and governed by Roman prefects (e.g. Pontius Pilate).
  • Galilee was ruled by Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great.
  • The Temple was administered by the Sadducean priesthood, often in collusion with Rome.

Roman occupation meant:

  • Heavy taxation and exploitation (cf. Matt. 22:17–21)
  • Military presence and crucifixion as public terror
  • Idolatrous imagery (e.g. emperor worship)
  • Class stratification and political surveillance

Amid this, the Mosaic law was contested:

  • The Pharisees stressed ritual purity and oral law
  • The Sadducees focused on temple control and political compromise
  • The Essenes withdrew into separatist purity
  • The Zealots sought violent resistance

5. Jesus’ Teachings in Cultural Collision

Jesus’ reaffirmation and reinterpretation of the Ten Commandments—especially in the Sermon on the Mount—occur within a context of political tension, religious confusion, and cultural compromise.

  • His call to love enemies (Matt. 5:44) challenged Zealot militancy.
  • His critique of hypocrisy (Matt. 23) opposed Pharisaic legalism.
  • His temple cleansing (Matt. 21:12–13) condemned Sadducean corruption.
  • His refusal to support insurrection (John 18:36) defied Roman expectations.

The political impact of His message is summarised in the charge against Him:

“We found this man perverting our nation, forbidding us to pay taxes to Caesar, and saying that he himself is the Messiah, a king.”
— Luke 23:2

Thus, while Jesus never advocated rebellion, His reinterpretation of the law posed a direct challenge to both imperial and religious power structures by asserting God’s moral authority over all human systems.

6. The Commandments in Cultural Continuity

Despite the historical gap between Sinai and Galilee, the core values of the Ten Commandments remain consistent:

  • God’s uniqueness and holiness
  • Human dignity and justice
  • Truthfulness, fidelity, and community ethics

Jesus does not introduce a new ethic but restores the law to its intended purpose—to reflect God’s character and guide His people in righteousness (Matt. 5:48; cf. Lev. 19:2).

7. Theological Implications of Political Context

The setting of both Mount Sinai and first-century Judea shows that God’s law is not shaped by empires, but stands over them. The Ten Commandments transcend cultural settings because they are:

  • Rooted in divine nature (God’s holiness)
  • Given in relational context (covenant)
  • Intended for moral transformation, not simply order or control

Jesus exemplifies this by teaching with divine authority, not legal tradition (Matt. 7:28–29). His fulfilment of the law offers not a new politics, but a new kingdom—a moral realm that subverts worldly powers by the power of love, truth, and sacrifice (John 18:36–37).

8. Conclusion

From the empire of Pharaoh to the empire of Caesar, the law of God has endured as a counter-cultural moral compass. The Ten Commandments were forged in a context of liberation from tyranny and fulfilled by Jesus in a world of oppression and religious distortion. Understanding their cultural and political settings deepens our grasp of their meaning and relevance.

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