Introduction: Imperial Oversight and National Aspirations
Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the League of Nations granted Britain administrative control over Palestine through the Mandate for Palestine (1920–1948). The British Mandate era became a crucible for Zionist ambitions and Arab nationalist resistance, as conflicting promises and geopolitical interests collided in a contested land. Britain’s attempt to balance its strategic concerns with the growing pressures of both Jewish and Arab communities ultimately resulted in escalating tensions, restrictive policies, and a deeply polarised landscape that would shape the path to Israeli statehood and the Arab-Israeli conflict.

The Balfour Declaration (1917)
At the heart of the British role in the Zionist project was the Balfour Declaration, a letter dated 2 November 1917 from British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community. The letter stated:

“His Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object…”

This declaration, though cautiously worded, was a landmark moment in modern Jewish history. It signalled official British support for Zionist aspirations, giving diplomatic legitimacy to the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. However, it also included a clause that “nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine,” implicitly acknowledging the Arab majority living in the territory.

The Balfour Declaration reflected British wartime strategy and imperial interests: it aimed to secure Jewish support in Allied countries (especially the United States and Russia), to counter growing German influence, and to enhance Britain’s position in the Middle East after the war. However, its ambiguity regarding the respective rights of Jews and Arabs became the source of enduring tension.

Mandate Implementation and Jewish Development
When Britain assumed control of Palestine, the Jewish population was a minority but growing due to successive waves of Zionist immigration (aliyot). The Mandate facilitated Jewish institutional development, including the Jewish Agency, Hebrew-language education, economic infrastructure, and the foundation of a self-governing Yishuv (Jewish community).

Simultaneously, the indigenous Arab population—which had not been consulted in the drafting of the Balfour Declaration—perceived Jewish immigration and land purchases as a threat to their national, political, and economic rights. Arab opposition intensified throughout the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in outbreaks of violence and increasingly vocal demands for independence and an end to Jewish immigration.

Jewish-Arab Tensions and Outbreaks of Violence
Communal tensions erupted into violence multiple times during the Mandate period:

• 1920 and 1921 Riots: Early attacks in Jerusalem and Jaffa signalled growing Arab resentment and were met with limited British response.
• 1929 Hebron Massacre: Triggered by rumours concerning Jewish access to the Western Wall, Arab mobs killed 67 Jews in Hebron and attacked other Jewish communities. The violence shocked the Yishuv and prompted defensive reorganisation.
• 1936–1939 Arab Revolt: A full-scale uprising against both British rule and Jewish immigration. The Arab Revolt was marked by strikes, attacks on Jewish civilians, and guerrilla warfare. Britain responded with military force and mass arrests, but also reassessed its policies in response to Arab pressure.

British White Papers and Policy Reversals
In response to rising unrest, Britain issued several White Papers—policy documents outlining its position on the Mandate and immigration:

• The 1930 Passfield White Paper proposed restrictions on Jewish immigration and land purchase, provoking fierce Zionist opposition. It was partially retracted after protest.
• The most consequential was the 1939 White Paper, issued on the eve of World War II. It severely restricted Jewish immigration to 75,000 over five years and opposed the establishment of a Jewish state. Britain framed the policy as an attempt to appease Arab opposition and preserve regional stability, particularly as war loomed.

For the Zionist movement, this was a profound betrayal. As Nazi antisemitism intensified in Europe, the British immigration quotas prevented thousands of Jewish refugees from reaching Palestine, contributing to the Holocaust’s devastating toll. Jewish underground organisations such as the Irgun and Lehi increasingly turned to armed resistance against the British.

Conclusion
The British Mandate period was marked by the convergence of imperial interests, nationalist aspirations, and communal rivalries. The Balfour Declaration gave Zionism an unprecedented boost, but Britain’s shifting policies and conflicting commitments rendered its governance increasingly untenable. The deepening rift between Jews and Arabs, exacerbated by violence and mutual distrust, laid the groundwork for future conflict. Ultimately, the British decision to withdraw from Palestine in 1948 reflected the collapse of imperial authority and the unresolved nature of national claims, setting the stage for the eventual establishment of the State of Israel and the enduring complexity of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.