Does Religion Promote Social Cohesion or Division?

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Social and Culture

1. Introduction

Religion’s role in society is ambivalent: it has historically united communities through shared beliefs and rituals, while also fostering divisions based on doctrine, identity, or competition for power. This analysis examines sociological, anthropological, and theological perspectives to evaluate whether religion promotes cohesion or division.

2. Religion and Social Cohesion

2.1 Durkheimian Perspective

Émile Durkheim (1912)

In The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Durkheim argued that religion:

  • Creates collective conscience through shared beliefs, rituals, and symbols.
  • Reinforces moral norms, integrating individuals into society.
  • Strengthens group solidarity by distinguishing sacred from profane.
Examples
  • Communal prayers and festivals in Islam (e.g. Eid al-Fitr).
  • Christian Sunday worship reinforcing community identity and moral teaching.

2.2 Functionalist Perspective

Talcott Parsons (1951)

Religion provides:

  • Value consensus, legitimising social institutions and laws.
  • Psychological comfort in crises (Malinowski, 1948).
Example

Funeral rituals across religions unify community members in grief, providing meaning and continuity.

2.3 Modern Applications

Faith-based organisations build social capital through:

  • Charitable work (e.g. Christian food banks, Islamic zakat systems).
  • Education and health services in underdeveloped regions (Putnam, 2000).

3. Religion and Social Division

3.1 Conflict Theory Perspective

Karl Marx (1844)

Religion as:

  • “Opium of the people”, pacifying oppressed classes and sustaining status quo.
  • Reinforcing social hierarchies, e.g. caste in Hinduism justified by religious cosmology (Dumont, 1980).

3.2 Sectarianism and Schism

Religious divisions arise through:

  • Doctrinal disagreements (e.g. Protestant Reformation).
  • Ethno-religious identity conflicts, where religion aligns with ethnicity (Fox, 2004).
Examples
  • Sunni-Shia divides in Islam leading to geopolitical tensions.
  • Catholic-Protestant conflict in Northern Ireland (Mitchell, 2006).

3.3 Exclusion and Intolerance

Religions can foster:

  • In-group/out-group dynamics, excluding non-believers or heretics.
  • Gender or caste discrimination justified through religious doctrines (Engineer, 2008).

4. Anthropological Perspectives

4.1 Mary Douglas: Boundaries and Purity

Religion creates symbolic boundaries that:

  • Maintain social order.
  • Differentiate insiders from outsiders, potentially leading to exclusion (Douglas, 1966).

4.2 Barth’s Ethnic Group Theory

Religious identity markers sustain group boundaries, especially in plural societies (Barth, 1969).

5. Case Studies

5.1 Cohesion

Example: Sikh Langar

Community kitchens in Sikhism feed all regardless of caste or religion, promoting social equality and cohesion (Singh, 2005).

5.2 Division

Example: Indian Communal Riots

Hindu-Muslim violence often driven by political mobilisation exploiting religious identities (Pandey, 1990).

5.3 Both Cohesion and Division

Example: Religion in the United States

  • Promotes social capital through churches and interfaith initiatives.
  • Deepens cultural polarisation over issues like abortion or LGBTQ+ rights (Putnam & Campbell, 2010).

6. Theoretical Synthesis

6.1 Robert Bellah: Civil Religion

Religion can integrate diverse populations under shared national symbols and rituals (Bellah, 1967).

6.2 Juergensmeyer: Ambivalence of Religion

Religious symbols and myths can mobilise peace or violence, depending on interpretation and leadership (Juergensmeyer, 2003).

7. Contemporary Implications

7.1 Interfaith Movements

Promote cohesion by fostering understanding and cooperation across religious divides (Cornille, 2013).

7.2 Religious Nationalism

Increases division when religion is fused with political identity, leading to exclusionary or violent movements (Juergensmeyer, 1993).

8. Conclusion

Does religion promote social cohesion or division?

✔ It does both.

  • Promotes Cohesion through:
    • Shared rituals, beliefs, and moral codes.
    • Community services and social solidarity.
    • Integration of diverse groups under civil religious frameworks.
  • Promotes Division when:
    • Used to demarcate exclusive identities.
    • Mobilised for political or economic interests.
    • Doctrinal absolutism fuels intolerance or conflict.

Overall, religion’s impact on social cohesion or division depends on interpretation, leadership, and its integration within broader cultural, political, and economic systems.

9. References

  • Barth, F. (1969). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Little, Brown.
  • Bellah, R. N. (1967). Civil Religion in America. Daedalus, 96(1), 1-21.
  • Cornille, C. (2013). The Im-possibility of Interreligious Dialogue. Crossroad.
  • Douglas, M. (1966). Purity and Danger. Routledge.
  • Dumont, L. (1980). Homo Hierarchicus. University of Chicago Press.
  • Durkheim, E. (1912). The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Allen & Unwin.
  • Engineer, A. A. (2008). Rights of Women in Islam. Sterling.
  • Fox, J. (2004). Religion, Civilization, and Civil War. Lexington Books.
  • Juergensmeyer, M. (1993). The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State. University of California Press.
  • Juergensmeyer, M. (2003). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press.
  • Malinowski, B. (1948). Magic, Science and Religion. Doubleday.
  • Mitchell, C. (2006). Religion, Identity and Politics in Northern Ireland. Ashgate.
  • Pandey, G. (1990). The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India. Oxford University Press.
  • Parsons, T. (1951). The Social System. Routledge.
  • Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone. Simon & Schuster.
  • Putnam, R. D., & Campbell, D. E. (2010). American Grace. Simon & Schuster.
  • Singh, N. G. (2005). Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
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