Introduction: Unity and Pluralism in Jewish Faith
Modern Israel and the global Jewish world together encompass a wide spectrum of religious traditions, ideologies, and expressions, shaped by history, diaspora experiences, and evolving cultural contexts. While Judaism remains the shared foundation, contemporary Jewish identity is far from monolithic. The religious landscape includes Orthodox, Conservative (Masorti), Reform, and secular or culturally affiliated Jews, each interpreting Jewish law (Halakha), tradition, and identity differently. Within Israel, these divisions have political, social, and legal implications, while diaspora Jewry continues to influence and interact with Israeli religious life in significant ways.

Orthodox Judaism in Israel
Orthodox Judaism, and particularly its Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) and Religious Zionist branches, plays a dominant role in Israeli religious institutions. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel, established in the early years of the state, is controlled by Orthodox authorities and governs matters of marriage, divorce, conversion, kashrut (dietary laws), and burial for Jewish citizens. Civil marriage is not available in Israel, meaning only religious marriages conducted under Orthodox auspices are recognised by the state for Jews.

• Haredi communities maintain strict interpretations of Halakha and are often socially separate, with their own educational systems, gender norms, and communal governance.
• Religious Zionists combine Orthodox religious practice with strong nationalist ideology, often supporting Jewish settlement in the West Bank and viewing the State of Israel as a step in the fulfilment of biblical prophecy.

Orthodox Judaism enjoys state funding and legal recognition in Israel, but this has led to friction with non-Orthodox streams and secular society, particularly over issues of religious coercion, gender equality at religious sites (e.g., the Western Wall), and the status of non-Orthodox conversions.

Conservative and Reform Movements
Outside Israel—particularly in North America—the Conservative (Masorti) and Reform movements represent significant portions of Jewish religious life. These movements advocate for more flexible approaches to Halakha, egalitarian worship, and modern values such as gender inclusion, LGBTQ+ rights, and interfaith dialogue.

In Israel, these movements remain marginalised by the state. Although they operate synagogues, schools, and rabbinical seminaries, they lack official recognition in key areas such as marriage and conversion. Their clergy are not recognised by the Chief Rabbinate, and their ceremonies do not carry legal standing. Nonetheless, the Masorti and Reform communities in Israel are growing, and they have gained increasing visibility and legal victories through the Israeli judiciary, particularly on issues of access to state funding and prayer rights at the Western Wall (Kotel).

Secular and Cultural Judaism
A large portion of Israeli Jews identify as secular (hiloni) or traditional (masorti). While many secular Jews do not observe Halakha strictly, they may still participate in Jewish festivals, lifecycle events, and national rituals—often viewing Jewish identity through ethnic, historical, or cultural lenses rather than strictly religious ones. The Israeli calendar and public sphere reflect this integration: national holidays coincide with Jewish festivals, Hebrew is the national language, and biblical references permeate education and politics.

Secular Israelis often advocate for religious pluralism, civil marriage, and separation of religion and state, while respecting Judaism as a national heritage. Many view their identity as both Jewish and Israeli, with varying degrees of religious engagement. This broad spectrum of observance fosters innovation and tension in defining what it means to be a “Jewish state.”

Influence of Diaspora Jewry
The global Jewish diaspora—especially in North America, Europe, Latin America, and Australia—continues to play a critical role in shaping Jewish identity and influencing Israeli society.

• Philanthropy from diaspora communities supports Israeli education, healthcare, immigration, and religious pluralism initiatives.
• Jewish organisations such as the Jewish Agency, World Zionist Organization, and Taglit-Birthright Israel foster connections between diaspora youth and Israel, strengthening cultural and ideological bonds.
• At the same time, tensions exist: many diaspora Jews—especially in liberal Jewish movements—oppose the monopoly of Orthodox Judaism in Israel and advocate for recognition of diverse Jewish practices and values. Issues such as the Nation-State Law, the status of women, treatment of non-Orthodox Jews, and Israeli policies in the Palestinian territories have led to vocal debate and at times strain between Israel and diaspora leadership.

Despite challenges, diaspora Jewry continues to provide moral, intellectual, and political support, and many Jews worldwide view Israel as a symbolic and spiritual centre, even if their relationship to the state is shaped by differing religious and ideological perspectives.

Conclusion
The religious landscape of modern Israel, and by extension, global Jewish identity, is characterised by vibrant diversity and internal contestation. Orthodox dominance in Israeli religious life coexists with growing calls for pluralism from Reform, Conservative, and secular Jews both in Israel and abroad. The dynamic relationship between Israel and the diaspora reveals deep-seated commonalities as well as cultural and theological divides. Ultimately, the ongoing negotiation of what it means to be a Jewish people in a modern world, across varied geographies and interpretations, is a testament to the enduring adaptability and vitality of Jewish civilisation.