Background: From Ptolemaic to Seleucid Rule
Following the death of Alexander the Great, his empire fragmented among his generals. Judea initially came under Ptolemaic control (based in Egypt) but was later taken by the Seleucid Empire (based in Syria) under Antiochus III the Great around 198 BCE. While early Seleucid rule allowed a degree of religious autonomy, rising tensions emerged as Hellenistic pressures increased and internal Jewish factions either supported or resisted assimilation.

Antiochus IV Epiphanes and Religious Persecution
The reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BCE) represents the most aggressive period of forced Hellenisation. Antiochus, seeking to unify his empire culturally and politically, attempted to impose Greek religious practices on all subject peoples, including the Jews. His campaign took a dramatic turn when he intervened in internal Jewish affairs, supported pro-Hellenist factions, and installed a high priest (Menelaus) who was favourable to his policies.

In 167 BCE, Antiochus desecrated the Jerusalem Temple, outlawed key Jewish practices (such as Sabbath observance, circumcision, and Torah reading), and erected an altar to Zeus within the Temple precincts, on which he ordered pagan sacrifices. This event, known in Jewish tradition as the abomination of desolation (cf. Daniel 11:31), was perceived as a direct assault on the covenant and provoked widespread outrage among faithful Jews.

The Maccabean Revolt
In response to this religious persecution, a rural priest named Mattathias of the Hasmonean family led a revolt against the Seleucid authorities. After his death, leadership passed to his son Judah Maccabee (“the Hammer”), who launched a sustained guerrilla campaign aimed at restoring religious freedom and purifying the Temple.

The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) combined military resistance with religious zeal. Against considerable odds, the Jewish rebels succeeded in regaining control of Jerusalem. In 164 BCE, they rededicated the Temple, removing the pagan altar and restoring traditional worship. This event is commemorated in the Jewish festival of Hanukkah (Dedication), which celebrates the miracle of the Temple’s menorah burning for eight days despite limited consecrated oil.

Theologically, the revolt is viewed as a triumph of covenantal faith over idolatrous tyranny. It represents a rare instance in Second Temple history where military action is framed as a legitimate and divinely sanctioned response to oppression. The literature of the period (notably 1 and 2 Maccabees) portrays the Maccabees as defenders of the Torah and of God’s sovereignty.

The Hasmonean Dynasty and Semi-Independence
Following the rededication of the Temple, the Maccabees—later known as the Hasmoneans—continued their struggle for political independence. Under the leadership of later sons such as Jonathan and Simon, the Jewish state gradually gained autonomy, and by 142 BCE, full de facto independence from the Seleucid Empire was established.

The Hasmonean dynasty governed as both high priests and political rulers, creating a fusion of religious and political authority not seen since the time of the monarchy. While early Hasmonean rule was celebrated for its defence of Jewish identity, the later period was marked by internal conflict, expansionist policies, and increasing resemblance to Hellenistic monarchies. The dynasty eventually lost favour among many Jewish groups, particularly the emerging Pharisees, due to its consolidation of priestly power and neglect of Davidic lineage.

Nevertheless, the Hasmonean period represents a brief but significant era of Jewish self-governance, restoration of religious practices, and reassertion of national identity after centuries of foreign rule. It also sets the stage for the socio-political and sectarian divisions that will dominate the late Second Temple period, including the rise of Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots.

Conclusion
The Seleucid oppression and the Maccabean Revolt mark a critical phase in Jewish history, in which religious identity is preserved through courageous resistance and institutional reform. The rededication of the Temple and the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty not only restore national pride but also reshape Jewish political and religious life. Though ultimately short-lived and fraught with internal tensions, this period embodies the enduring Jewish commitment to covenantal faithfulness and foreshadows the complex dynamics that will characterise the later Roman period.