Introduction: Complexity in a Diverse Society
Modern Israel is a vibrant yet deeply complex society marked by ethnic, religious, political, and ideological diversity. Since its establishment in 1948, the state has evolved from a largely homogeneous Zionist enterprise into a multicultural and multiethnic democracy with competing narratives, priorities, and identities. The fabric of Israeli society reflects tensions between Jewish and Arab citizens, religious and secular worldviews, and left-wing and right-wing politics, all of which play out in a dynamic but often polarised political system.

Arab-Israeli Identity and Conflict
Approximately 20% of Israel’s population comprises Arab citizens—primarily Muslims, with smaller Christian and Druze communities—who remained within the state’s borders after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. While they hold Israeli citizenship, voting rights, and access to public services, Arab citizens have historically faced systemic discrimination, land expropriations, and socio-economic disparities. Their identity is often shaped by a dual sense of belonging and exclusion—as Palestinians by heritage, and as Israelis by citizenship.

Tensions are further intensified by the broader Israeli–Palestinian conflict, particularly during periods of heightened violence in the West Bank and Gaza. Arab citizens of Israel have protested policies perceived as marginalising, such as the 2018 Nation-State Law, which codifies Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people without equal mention of minority rights. At the same time, increasing numbers of Arab Israelis participate in public life, higher education, and the professions, and in recent years, Arab political parties and Arab-led coalitions have gained greater parliamentary visibility, including participation in the governing coalition (e.g., the Ra’am party in 2021–2022).

Political Parties and Coalition Government
Israel operates under a parliamentary democracy with a proportional representation electoral system. Citizens vote for political parties rather than individual candidates, and the 120-member Knesset (parliament) reflects Israel’s broad ideological spectrum. No single party has ever won an outright majority, making coalition governments the norm.

Israel’s party landscape includes:

• Right-wing and religious parties: such as Likud, Shas, United Torah Judaism, and Religious Zionism, which often emphasise national security, Jewish identity, and conservative social values.
• Centrist parties: including Yesh Atid, Blue and White, and Kadima (now defunct), typically advocating moderate policies and secular governance.
• Left-wing parties: such as Labour, Meretz, and various past socialist or peace-oriented movements, historically influential but declining in recent decades.
• Arab parties: like Hadash, Balad, Ra’am, and Ta’al, focusing on minority rights, social justice, and Israeli-Palestinian peace.

Israeli politics is known for its volatility, frequent elections, and fragile coalition arrangements. Governments often collapse due to ideological splits, leadership rivalries, or external crises, leading to a high turnover of leadership and policy inconsistency. Nevertheless, the democratic system remains resilient, with peaceful transfers of power and strong civil institutions.

Religious vs. Secular Tensions
One of the most enduring internal tensions in Israeli society lies between religious and secular Jews. The founders of Israel envisioned a secular Jewish democracy, but the state also granted significant authority to religious institutions in personal status matters—marriage, divorce, conversion, and burial—governed by rabbinical courts under Orthodox Jewish control.

This arrangement has led to ongoing tensions:

• Secular Israelis often resent the lack of civil marriage and the perceived imposition of religious norms in public life (e.g., Sabbath restrictions, gender segregation in public spaces).
• Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) communities, which constitute a growing segment of the population, often resist integration into the military and labour force, preferring religious study and communal autonomy.
• Religious Zionists, who combine Orthodox Judaism with nationalist ideology, have become increasingly influential, particularly in the settlement movement and among young political elites.

Issues of military service exemptions for Haredim, state funding for religious schools, and public transportation on Shabbat regularly provoke public debate and protests. Political parties such as Shas, United Torah Judaism, and Yisrael Beiteinu (representing secular Russian immigrants) frequently clash over these issues within coalition negotiations.

Despite these divisions, Israeli society also features cross-cutting social networks, shared institutions, and intercommunal cooperation, particularly in sectors such as healthcare, the military, and the tech industry. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF), for example, function as a major site of national integration, though its role is complicated by exemptions and divisions.

Conclusion
Modern Israel is a state navigating the complex interplay of democracy, nationalism, religion, and diversity. Its internal social dynamics reflect both the strength and the fragility of its political fabric. The Arab-Israeli identity struggle, religious-secular divide, and volatile coalition politics present ongoing challenges, but also opportunities for dialogue, reform, and inclusive governance. As Israel continues to evolve, its ability to balance its Jewish and democratic character remains a defining issue for the 21st century.