1. Introduction
The question of how the Old Testament canon was formed has long been central to biblical scholarship and theological discourse. Unlike modern assumptions about a fixed “Bible,” ancient Israel’s sacred writings developed and gained recognition over centuries, culminating in the formation of a defined canon. This article traces the historical process by which the books of the Hebrew Bible came to be recognised as authoritative Scripture, with attention to textual evidence, Jewish tradition, and historical debates surrounding canon closure.
2. Defining the Canon
A canon refers to a recognised, authoritative collection of texts considered sacred and normative for belief and practice. In the case of the Hebrew Bible, canon formation involved:
- Recognition (not creation) of inspired writings,
- Transmission across successive generations,
- Stabilisation in liturgical and theological usage.
It is important to distinguish between:
- Authoritative writings (used and revered),
- And a closed canon (a fixed list of sacred books).
3. Evidence of a Tripartite Canon
By the late Second Temple period, the structure of the Hebrew Bible was becoming recognisable in three divisions:
A. Torah (Law)
- The earliest and most universally recognised section.
- Already authoritative by the 5th century BCE (cf. Ezra–Nehemiah).
B. Nevi’im (Prophets)
- Recognised by the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE.
- Referred to in historical records and internal biblical texts (e.g., Zech. 1:4; Dan. 9:2).
C. Ketuvim (Writings)
- Accepted later; status was more variable across communities.
- Eventually included Psalms, Job, Proverbs, the Five Scrolls, and others.
The prologue to Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus) (c. 180 BCE) refers to “the Law, the Prophets, and the other books,” confirming a tripartite pattern already in use.
4. Canonical Awareness in Second Temple Judaism
A. Dead Sea Scrolls (Qumran)
- Discovered in caves near Qumran (c. 250 BCE – 50 CE),
- Contain copies or fragments of nearly all biblical books (except Esther),
- Reveal that many biblical texts were copied, interpreted, and revered,
- Also contain non-canonical works (e.g., 1 Enoch, Jubilees), suggesting fluid boundaries.
B. Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BCE – 50 CE)
- A Jewish philosopher who quoted only from the Torah and Prophets, though he never offered a complete canon list.
- Used the Septuagint, showing the influence of the Greek-speaking Jewish world.
C. Josephus (c. 37–100 CE)
- In Against Apion 1.8, he speaks of 22 books considered sacred: “…only twenty-two books… and of these, five belong to Moses, thirteen to the prophets… and the remaining four contain hymns to God and precepts for the conduct of human life.”
This likely corresponds to the Tanakh, compressed to fit a 22-letter Hebrew alphabet structure (by combining certain books).
5. The Role of Rabbinic Judaism and Jamnia
A. The Yavne/Jamnia Hypothesis
- A rabbinic council at Yavne (Jamnia) c. AD 90 is traditionally thought to have discussed which books “defile the hands” (i.e., are sacred).
- Books debated include Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Esther, Ezekiel, and Proverbs.
While this did not formally establish the canon, it reflects ongoing rabbinic evaluation of scriptural status.
B. Finalisation in Rabbinic Tradition
- By the 2nd century CE, rabbinic Judaism had largely agreed on the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible.
- The Babylonian Talmud (c. 6th century CE) reflects this consensus (cf. Bava Batra 14b).
6. Canonical Differences: Hebrew Bible vs. Septuagint
The Septuagint (LXX) was the Greek translation of Hebrew Scriptures and included additional texts not found in the later Hebrew canon. These include:
- Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, 1–2 Maccabees,
- Additions to Esther and Daniel.
These Deuterocanonical books were widely read and revered in Greek-speaking Judaism and the early Church but were excluded by later rabbinic Judaism.
A. Christian Reception
- Early Christians used the LXX as their Old Testament,
- The early Church Fathers (e.g. Irenaeus, Clement, Augustine) quoted freely from Deuterocanonical books,
- Protestant reformers later returned to the Hebrew canon (24 books), while Catholic and Orthodox churches retained the expanded Septuagint canon.
7. Canon Closure: Summary of Key Milestones
| Time Period | Development |
|---|---|
| 5th century BCE | Torah widely established (Ezra–Nehemiah) |
| 3rd–2nd centuries BCE | Prophets stabilised; Writings in use |
| c. 180 BCE (Ben Sira) | References tripartite canon structure |
| 1st century CE (Josephus) | Affirms closed list of 22 canonical books |
| c. AD 90 (Jamnia?) | Discussions on disputed books among rabbis |
| 2nd century CE | General rabbinic consensus on 24-book canon |
8. Theological Significance of Canon Recognition
The closure of the Old Testament canon was not an arbitrary act but a recognition of long-standing authority rooted in:
- Covenantal origins (Torah),
- Prophetic continuity (Nevi’im),
- Spiritual and liturgical depth (Ketuvim).
Canonisation preserved the voice of God to His people, ensured textual stability, and allowed for faithful interpretation and application.
9. Conclusion
The canon of the Old Testament emerged through centuries of communal discernment, liturgical usage, and theological reflection. While the Torah and Prophets achieved recognition early, the Writings required a longer process of evaluation. By the second century CE, Judaism had largely fixed its canon—a set of 24 books arranged in three divisions. These Scriptures formed the basis of Israel’s covenant identity and, through them, the Church inherited a foundational witness to the God who speaks, remembers, judges, and redeems.