Introduction: Continuity, Fulfilment, and Mystery
The question of Israel’s role in Christian theology has remained a central and often debated theme throughout church history. Rooted in the biblical covenants, the identity and destiny of Israel engage key theological concerns such as God’s faithfulness, election, and salvation history. In the New Testament—particularly in Romans 9–11—the Apostle Paul wrestles with the status of Israel in light of Christ’s messianic fulfilment and the expansion of the gospel to the Gentiles. Across Christian traditions, differing interpretations have emerged, leading to distinct theological models such as Covenant Theology, Dispensationalism, and the growing phenomenon of Messianic Judaism. Each offers a unique lens through which the continuing significance of Israel is understood.

Romans 9–11: Paul’s Discourse on Israel
In Romans 9–11, Paul provides the most sustained New Testament reflection on the theological status of ethnic Israel. These chapters follow Paul’s exposition of justification by faith (Romans 1–8) and directly address the seeming paradox that most Jews rejected Jesus as Messiah, while Gentiles were increasingly coming to faith.

• In Romans 9, Paul affirms Israel’s privileged status: “the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the worship, and the promises” belong to them (Romans 9:4). Yet he argues that not all physical descendants of Abraham are the true children of God, invoking the principle of divine election (Romans 9:6–13).
• In Romans 10, Paul laments Israel’s unbelief and emphasises the necessity of faith in Christ for salvation. He critiques reliance on the law for righteousness and highlights the universality of the gospel, which is open to all who believe (Romans 10:12–13).
• Romans 11 presents a profound theology of hope and mystery. Paul insists that “God has not rejected His people” (Romans 11:1) and uses the imagery of the olive tree to explain the relationship between Jews and Gentiles. While some of Israel have been “cut off” due to unbelief, Gentile believers are “grafted in.” Paul warns against arrogance and asserts that “all Israel will be saved” (Romans 11:26), a statement interpreted in various ways—either corporately, eschatologically, or spiritually.

Overall, Paul affirms both the irrevocability of God’s promises to Israel (Romans 11:29) and the necessity of faith in Christ as the means of salvation, maintaining a delicate balance between continuity with Israel and the newness of the church.

Covenant Theology
Covenant Theology, dominant in many Reformed and mainline Protestant traditions, views redemptive history as unfolding through successive covenants (e.g., with Abraham, Moses, David) that find their fulfilment in Christ. From this perspective, the church is the true Israel, comprising all believers—Jews and Gentiles—who are united by faith. The old covenant is not abolished but fulfilled and transformed in the new covenant.

In this framework:

• Ethnic Israel has no continuing theological priority apart from individual salvation through Christ.
• Promises to Israel are understood to be spiritually fulfilled in the church.
• The focus is on covenantal continuity, with the church as the present expression of God’s redemptive people.

Critics argue that Covenant Theology can lead to supersessionism (replacement theology), whereby Israel is effectively displaced, though many contemporary theologians emphasise inclusion rather than replacement.

Dispensationalism
Dispensationalism, widely influential in Evangelical and Pentecostal circles, especially in the United States, offers a contrasting view. It sees redemptive history as divided into distinct dispensations or eras in which God interacts with humanity in different ways. Central to Dispensationalism is a clear distinction between Israel and the Church.

Key features include:

• The belief that God has a separate and ongoing plan for Israel, distinct from the Church.
• A literal interpretation of Old Testament prophecies regarding the land, temple, and kingdom.
• The expectation of a future restoration of Israel, including national repentance, the rebuilding of the temple, and Christ’s millennial reign from Jerusalem.
• The rapture theology, in which the Church will be taken up before a period of tribulation and the full redemption of Israel.

Dispensationalism underscores the faithfulness of God to His covenantal promises to national Israel, often aligning with Christian Zionist perspectives and supporting the modern State of Israel as a prophetic fulfilment.

Messianic Judaism
Messianic Judaism represents a growing movement of Jewish believers in Jesus (Yeshua) who maintain Jewish identity, customs, and Torah observance while affirming Jesus as the Messiah. Unlike traditional Christian denominations, Messianic Jews do not view belief in Jesus as a departure from Judaism but as its fulfilment.

Characteristics of Messianic Judaism include:

• Observance of Jewish festivals, kosher laws, and Sabbath, often with Christological interpretations.
• The use of Hebrew liturgy and symbolism, contextualised within New Testament theology.
• A theological emphasis on the continuity of the covenants and the role of Israel in God’s ongoing redemptive plan.

Messianic Judaism challenges the conventional boundaries between Judaism and Christianity, offering a hybrid model that seeks to preserve Jewish tradition within the framework of New Testament faith. It often supports Israel’s prophetic role, including eschatological restoration and end-times fulfilment.

Conclusion
The role of Israel in Christian theology remains a subject of profound significance, theological tension, and interpretive diversity. Paul’s writings in Romans 9–11 set the stage for theological reflection that balances divine election, human response, and eschatological hope. Covenant Theology sees Israel’s promises fulfilled spiritually in the Church, while Dispensationalism maintains a future for national Israel in God’s redemptive timetable. Messianic Judaism affirms the enduring identity and mission of Israel within the messianic movement itself. Together, these perspectives illustrate the richness and complexity of Christian engagement with Israel—past, present, and future.