Comparative Religion Questions
1. Introduction
Eastern religions encompass diverse traditions with complex philosophies and practices. This analysis summarises the core beliefs of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism, highlighting their metaphysical, ethical, and soteriological frameworks.
2. Hinduism
2.1 Overview
Hinduism is a pluralistic tradition rooted in Vedic, Upanishadic, and later philosophical and devotional developments. It has no single founder or centralised authority.
2.2 Core Beliefs
2.2.1 Brahman
- Ultimate reality: Infinite, eternal, formless consciousness that is the ground of all existence (Upanishads).
- Can be nirguna (without attributes) or saguna (with attributes) depending on theological schools.
2.2.2 Atman
- The true Self, identical with Brahman in Advaita Vedanta (Shankara).
- Realisation of Atman-Brahman unity leads to liberation (moksha).
2.2.3 Karma
- Law of moral causation: Actions (karma) determine future rebirths and experiences.
2.2.4 Samsara
- Cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, governed by karma, from which liberation is sought.
2.2.5 Moksha
- Liberation from samsara, achieved through knowledge (jnana), devotion (bhakti), righteous action (karma yoga), or meditation (raja yoga) depending on the path emphasised (Bhagavad Gita).
2.2.6 Dharma
- Righteous duty aligned with cosmic order, social role, and stage of life (varnashrama-dharma).
2.2.7 Polytheism and Henotheism
- Worship of multiple deities (e.g. Vishnu, Shiva, Devi) as manifestations of the one Brahman.
2.3 Philosophical Diversity
Schools range from Advaita (non-dualism) to Dvaita (dualism) and Visishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), each interpreting Brahman, Atman, and the world differently (Flood, 1996).
3. Buddhism
3.1 Overview
Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) in the 5th century BCE as a reform movement rejecting aspects of Hindu orthodoxy.
3.2 Core Beliefs
3.2.1 Four Noble Truths
- Dukkha: Life is suffering or unsatisfactory.
- Samudaya: Suffering arises from craving and ignorance.
- Nirodha: Cessation (nirvana) is possible.
- Magga: The Eightfold Path leads to cessation.
3.2.2 Eightfold Path
Right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration – leading to wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline.
3.2.3 Anatta (No-self)
- Rejection of permanent, unchanging self (atman); existence is a process of skandhas (aggregates) without essence.
3.2.4 Anicca (Impermanence)
- All conditioned phenomena are transient and changing.
3.2.5 Karma and Rebirth
- Actions shape future rebirths, but without an enduring self transferring across lives.
3.2.6 Nirvana
- Liberation from samsara, a state beyond suffering, craving, and ignorance.
3.3 Mahayana and Theravada Differences
Theravada
- Emphasises individual enlightenment (arhat ideal).
- Pali Canon as authoritative scripture.
Mahayana
- Emphasises bodhisattva ideal (postponing nirvana to aid others).
- Expanded cosmology and scriptures (e.g. Lotus Sutra).
4. Taoism (Daoism)
4.1 Overview
Originated in China, attributed to Laozi (Dao De Jing) and Zhuangzi, integrating philosophical and religious practices.
4.2 Core Beliefs
4.2.1 Dao (Tao)
- The Way: Ultimate, ineffable reality underlying and flowing through all things; source of creation and order (Dao De Jing, Chapter 1).
4.2.2 Wu Wei
- Non-action or effortless action: Acting in harmony with the Dao, without forceful striving.
4.2.3 Yin-Yang
- The interdependent, complementary forces of the universe, ensuring balance and harmony.
4.2.4 Naturalness (Ziran)
- Living in accordance with one’s true nature and the spontaneous order of the cosmos.
4.2.5 Immortality and Longevity
- Religious Taoism includes practices (alchemy, meditation) aiming for physical immortality or spiritual transcendence (Kohn, 2000).
4.3 Philosophical vs Religious Taoism
- Philosophical Taoism: Emphasises metaphysics and ethics (Laozi, Zhuangzi).
- Religious Taoism: Rituals, deities, and priestly hierarchies integrated into Chinese folk religion.
5. Comparative Analysis
| Belief Aspect | Hinduism | Buddhism | Taoism |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ultimate Reality | Brahman (Absolute) | Sunyata (Emptiness) / Nirvana | Dao (The Way) |
| Self | Atman (eternal self) | Anatta (no-self) | Relational, spontaneous self |
| Goal | Moksha (liberation) | Nirvana (cessation) | Harmony with Dao |
| Cosmology | Cyclic samsara | Cyclic samsara | Cyclic natural processes |
| Ethics | Dharma | Eightfold Path | Wu wei, naturalness |
| Divinity | Polytheism/Henotheism | Non-theistic or cosmic Buddhas | Polytheistic deities in religious Taoism |
6. Conclusion
What are the core beliefs of Eastern religions?
✔ Hinduism: Atman-Brahman unity, karma, samsara, moksha, dharma, and diverse theologies.
✔ Buddhism: Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, anatta, karma, nirvana, with Mahayana and Theravada differences.
✔ Taoism: Dao as ultimate reality, wu wei (effortless action), yin-yang balance, naturalness, and harmony.
Despite differences, these traditions share:
- Non-linear cosmologies (cyclic time)
- Emphasis on ethical living and self-cultivation
- Philosophical frameworks integrating metaphysics with practical wisdom for achieving harmony, liberation, or enlightenment.
7. References
- Cox, J. L. (2007). From Primitive to Indigenous: The Academic Study of Indigenous Religions. Ashgate.
- Durkheim, E. (1912). The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Allen & Unwin.
- Flood, G. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press.
- Harvey, P. (2000). An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics. Cambridge University Press.
- Kohn, L. (2000). Daoism and Chinese Culture. Three Pines Press.
- Mbiti, J. S. (1969). African Religions and Philosophy. Heinemann.
- Shankara. Crest-Jewel of Discrimination (Vivekachudamani). Vedanta Press.
- Williams, P. (2009). Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Routledge.
- Wright, D. C. (2000). The History of China. Greenwood Press.
- Zhuangzi. The Book of Chuang Tzu.