What is Religion?

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Definition and Conceptual Questions:

1. Introduction

Defining “religion” is a central problem in religious studies, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. There is no universally accepted definition, as religion encompasses beliefs, practices, experiences, symbols, ethics, institutions, and worldviews. Definitions can be substantive (content-based) or functional (purpose-based).

2. Substantive Definitions

2.1 Edward Tylor (1871)

  • Definition: “Belief in spiritual beings.”
  • Focus: Animism as the minimal form of religion.

Critique: Too narrow; excludes non-theistic traditions (e.g. Buddhism).

2.2 Emile Durkheim (1912)

  • Definition: “A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things… which unite into one single moral community called a Church all those who adhere to them.”

Key Points:

  • Emphasises sacred-profane distinction.
  • Religion as a social phenomenon creating collective conscience.

Critique: Overemphasis on communal aspect; overlooks individual spirituality.

2.3 Clifford Geertz (1973)

  • Definition: “A system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations… by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.”

Key Points:

  • Emphasises meaning-making and worldview construction.
  • Integrates beliefs, symbols, and psychological effects.

2.4 William James (1902)

  • Definition: “The feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine.”

Key Points:

  • Focuses on personal religious experience.
  • Broader than institutional definitions.

Critique: Neglects social and ritual dimensions.

3. Functional Definitions

3.1 Karl Marx (1844)

  • Definition: Religion as “the opium of the people,” a tool of social control, legitimising inequality by promising illusory comfort.

3.2 Sigmund Freud (1927)

  • Definition: Religion as “universal obsessional neurosis”, arising from psychological needs, fear, and projection of parental authority.

3.3 Bronisław Malinowski (1948)

  • Definition: Religion functions to alleviate psychological stress and provide social cohesion in uncertain contexts.

3.4 Functionalist Sociological Perspective

Religion maintains:

  • Social integration and moral order (Durkheim).
  • Control and legitimisation of power structures (Marx).

4. Polythetic and Family Resemblance Definitions

4.1 Ninian Smart (1996): Seven Dimensions of Religion

  1. Doctrinal: Beliefs and teachings
  2. Mythological: Sacred narratives
  3. Ethical: Moral codes
  4. Ritual: Worship and ceremonies
  5. Experiential: Religious emotions and experiences
  6. Institutional: Organisational structures
  7. Material: Sacred objects, art, architecture

Key Point: Religion is a complex phenomenon combining these dimensions.

4.2 Wittgensteinian Approach

  • “Religion” is a family resemblance concept, like ‘game’, with overlapping features but no single essence.

5. Legal and Practical Definitions

5.1 United Nations Human Rights Committee (1993)

Defines religion broadly to include theistic, non-theistic, and atheistic beliefs protected under freedom of religion.

5.2 UK Charity Commission

Religion includes belief in one or more gods, supreme spiritual principle, or worship of a divine being, but not purely philosophical belief without spiritual dimension.

6. Religious Studies Debates

6.1 Essentialist Critique

No single universal definition captures religion across cultures. Western conceptions often impose categories alien to non-Western traditions (Asad, 1993).

6.2 Constructivist View

Religion is a modern construct used to categorise diverse practices for political or academic purposes (Smith, 1962).

7. Theological Perspectives

7.1 Christianity

Religion is often defined as:

  • Relationship with God (James 1:27).
  • System of beliefs, worship, and moral duties rooted in divine revelation.

7.2 Islam

Din (religion) encompasses:

  • Belief (iman)
  • Practice (ibadah)
  • Law (sharia)

It is a complete way of life ordained by Allah.

7.3 Hinduism

Dharma integrates:

  • Religion, duty, morality, and cosmic order – not reducible to Western categories of ‘religion’.

8. Conclusion

What is religion?

✔ Substantively, it involves beliefs in spiritual realities, sacred truths, and moral systems.
✔ Functionally, it serves psychological needs, social cohesion, moral regulation, and meaning-making.
✔ Conceptually, it is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, encompassing beliefs, rituals, experiences, symbols, ethics, and institutions that connect individuals and communities to perceived ultimate realities or values.

Ultimately, religion is both an individual and collective orientation to what is considered sacred, transcendent, or of ultimate concern, shaping identities, cultures, and civilisations across history.

9. References

  • Asad, T. (1993). Genealogies of Religion. Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Durkheim, E. (1912). The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Allen & Unwin.
  • Freud, S. (1927). The Future of an Illusion.
  • Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures. Basic Books.
  • James, W. (1902). The Varieties of Religious Experience. Longmans.
  • Malinowski, B. (1948). Magic, Science and Religion. Doubleday.
  • Marx, K. (1844). Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right.
  • Smart, N. (1996). Dimensions of the Sacred. HarperCollins.
  • Smith, W. C. (1962). The Meaning and End of Religion. Fortress Press.
  • Tylor, E. B. (1871). Primitive Culture. John Murray.
  • Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical Investigations. Blackwell.
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