Why Have Many Wars Been Fought Over Religion?

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Conflicts and Violence

1. Introduction

Throughout history, many wars have been framed as religious conflicts. The causes, however, are complex. This analysis examines:

  • Historical examples of religious wars
  • Theoretical perspectives on religion and conflict
  • The role of religion as cause, justification, or identity marker

2. Historical Examples of Religious Wars

2.1 The Crusades (1095–1291)

Context

Initiated by Pope Urban II to “liberate” Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim rule, combining:

  • Religious motivations (pilgrimage, forgiveness of sins)
  • Political ambitions (papal power, noble land acquisition) (Riley-Smith, 2005).

2.2 European Wars of Religion (16th–17th centuries)

Examples

  • French Wars of Religion (1562–1598): Catholics vs Huguenots.
  • Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648): Initially Protestant-Catholic conflict, evolving into a dynastic struggle involving major European powers.

Analysis

Religion was central, but:

  • Political sovereignty, territorial ambitions, and economic interests were deeply intertwined (Parker, 1997).

2.3 Islamic Conquests (7th–8th centuries)

Context

Early Islamic expansion used jihad as a religious justification, but also pursued:

  • Political unification of Arabian tribes
  • Economic and strategic expansion (Donner, 1981).

2.4 Partition of India (1947)

Context

Hindu-Muslim communal violence during independence and partition was rooted in:

  • Religious identities
  • Colonial divide-and-rule policies
  • Competing nationalisms (Pandey, 1990).

3. Why Religion Is Implicated in War

3.1 Theological Absolutism

3.1.1 Exclusive Truth Claims

Many religions claim:

  • Absolute truth
  • Divine commands

Such claims can create non-negotiable positions in conflict (Juergensmeyer, 2003).

3.2 Sacralisation of Land and Identity

3.2.1 Sacred Geography

Holy sites (e.g. Jerusalem, Mecca, Ayodhya) are infused with religious meaning, making territorial conflicts existential (Armstrong, 1996).

3.2.2 Group Identity

Religion defines in-group vs out-group boundaries, intensifying hostilities where religious identity aligns with ethnicity or nationality (Fox, 2004).

3.3 Mobilisation and Legitimation

3.3.1 Religious Language and Symbols

Leaders use religious rhetoric to:

  • Mobilise mass support
  • Legitimate war as divinely sanctioned (Appleby, 2000).
Examples:
  • Crusade calls as “God wills it.”
  • Jihad rhetoric in Islamic conquests and modern extremism.

3.4 Cosmic War Framing

Mark Juergensmeyer’s Theory

Conflicts become religious wars when framed as “cosmic wars”, portraying enemies as evil forces in a transcendent struggle (Juergensmeyer, 2003).

4. Religion as Cause or Justification?

4.1 Instrumentalisation Theory

Many wars labelled religious are primarily:

  • Political or economic in cause
  • Using religion to frame or justify conflict (Cavanaugh, 2009).

4.2 William Cavanaugh’s Critique

Cavanaugh argues:

  • The concept of “religious wars” is a secular myth.
  • Early modern Europe labelled conflicts religious to justify state formation and control.
  • Most “religious wars” were driven by dynastic power struggles, territorial ambitions, and economic interests with religion providing moral legitimacy (Cavanaugh, 2009).

5. Theoretical Perspectives

5.1 Girard’s Mimetic Violence

Religion channels mimetic rivalry (imitation and envy) into ritual sacrifice to prevent chaos, but can also sacralise violence against scapegoats (Girard, 1977).

5.2 Huntington’s Civilisational Thesis

Huntington (1996) argues that post-Cold War conflicts would be cultural and religious rather than ideological or economic, though critics highlight this oversimplifies geopolitical realities.

6. Contemporary Examples

6.1 Islamist Extremism

Groups like ISIS use religious justification for violence, but causes include:

  • Political marginalisation
  • Economic deprivation
  • Geopolitical interventions (Gerges, 2016).

6.2 Hindu Nationalism

Violence against Muslims and Christians is framed as defending Hindu identity, driven by:

  • Political mobilisation
  • Nationalist ideologies (Jaffrelot, 2007).

7. Conclusion

Why have many wars been fought over religion?

Key reasons:

  • Theological absolutism and exclusive truth claims
  • Sacred geography and identity intensifying territorial conflicts
  • Religious rhetoric used by political leaders to mobilise and legitimise warfare
  • Cosmic war framing transforming temporal disputes into transcendent struggles

However, most so-called religious wars involve deeper political, economic, and social causes, with religion serving as a powerful mobilising and legitimising force rather than a standalone cause.

8. References

  • Appleby, R. S. (2000). The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation. Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Armstrong, K. (1996). Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths. Ballantine Books.
  • Cavanaugh, W. T. (2009). The Myth of Religious Violence. Oxford University Press.
  • Donner, F. M. (1981). The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton University Press.
  • Fox, J. (2004). Religion, Civilization, and Civil War. Lexington Books.
  • Gerges, F. A. (2016). ISIS: A History. Princeton University Press.
  • Girard, R. (1977). Violence and the Sacred. Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Jaffrelot, C. (2007). Hindu Nationalism: A Reader. Princeton University Press.
  • Juergensmeyer, M. (2003). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press.
  • Pandey, G. (1990). The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India. Oxford University Press.
  • Parker, G. (1997). The Thirty Years’ War. Routledge.
  • Riley-Smith, J. (2005). The Crusades: A History. Yale University Press.
  • Tyerman, C. (2006). God’s War: A New History of the Crusades. Belknap Press.
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