Part IV – The Fatimid Era and the Miracle of Mokattam Mountain

8.1 The Rise of the Fatimid Caliphate

The Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE) emerged in North Africa as an Ismāʿīlī Shiʿa dynasty claiming direct descent from the Prophet Muḥammad through his daughter Fāṭima. Unlike the Sunni Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids combined religious and political authority in a single spiritual-imperial institution. Their mission was both universal and intellectual—to spread a rational, esoteric interpretation of Islam emphasising divine justice, human reason, and tolerance toward the “People of the Book” (Halm 1991).

In 969 CE, the Fatimid general Jawhar al-Ṣiqillī conquered Egypt and founded al-Qāhira (“the Victorious”), later Cairo, as the new capital of the empire. The establishment of the Fatimid Imamate in Egypt marked a new era of prosperity, religious diversity, and cultural efflorescence that profoundly shaped the spiritual geography in which the Mokattam miracle would later be remembered (Brett 2017).

8.2 Al-Muʿizz li-Dīn Allāh and the Founding of Cairo

The Fatimid ruler Caliph al-Muʿizz li-Dīn Allāh (r. 953–975 CE) was both conqueror and reformer. Under his leadership, Egypt became the intellectual and administrative heart of the Fatimid realm. Al-Muʿizz introduced a sophisticated bureaucracy integrating Muslims, Christians, and Jews into state service, reflecting the dynasty’s pragmatic pluralism (Lev 1999).

Cairo’s design mirrored the Fatimid cosmic vision: the Great Palace, the Mosque of al-Azhar (established 970 CE), and the Dar al-ʿIlm (House of Knowledge) together symbolised the unity of revelation and reason. The caliph’s court employed Coptic accountants, Jewish physicians, and Greek translators, demonstrating that faith and expertise could coexist in administrative harmony. This climate of openness allowed the Coptic Orthodox Church, though officially subordinate, to flourish both economically and spiritually.

8.3 The Religious Climate of 10th-Century Egypt

Tenth-century Egypt was a mosaic of beliefs. Alongside Ismāʿīlī Shiʿa Islam—the state creed—lived large populations of Sunni Muslims, Coptic Christians, and Jews. The Fatimid approach to governance differed markedly from earlier rulers: they sought legitimacy not through force but through persuasion and inclusivity. Their theology of the Imam as divinely guided leader allowed tolerance of multiple paths to truth, so long as they did not challenge the unity of the realm (Halm 1991).

Christian and Jewish communities were recognised as ahl al-dhimma (“protected people”), bound by the dhimma contract but permitted to worship freely, own property, and participate in commerce. Many Copts occupied senior bureaucratic roles, managing taxation and irrigation—two pillars of Egypt’s prosperity. The coexistence of diverse faiths within a single polity created fertile ground for inter-religious dialogue but also moments of tension, particularly when economic competition or theological rivalry arose.

8.4 Pope Abraham (Abraam ibn Zurʿah) and the Coptic Church

At the time of al-Muʿizz’s reign, the Coptic Orthodox Patriarch was Pope Abraham (Abraam ibn Zurʿah), the 62nd successor of St Mark, serving approximately from 975 to 978 CE (Meinardus 1965). A man of Syrian origin and scholarly disposition, Abraham was known for humility, asceticism, and theological wisdom. His leadership coincided with a period of renewed dialogue between the Coptic Church and the Muslim authorities.

The Copts, while subject to the jizya and restricted in certain public expressions of faith, nonetheless enjoyed a measure of autonomy unprecedented since Byzantine rule. Monasteries such as those in Wadi el-Natrun thrived as centres of spiritual life and manuscript production. Within this relative stability, however, lay the potential for religious contestation that would soon erupt into the famous trial of faith known as the Moving of Mokattam Mountain.

8.5 Religious Debates and the Challenge of Scripture

According to Coptic and later Islamic sources, interfaith debates at the Fatimid court were common. Caliphs such as al-Muʿizz encouraged theological disputation as demonstrations of rational piety. In this milieu, Christian theologians frequently cited biblical miracles to defend the divinity of Christ, while Muslim scholars emphasised the unity and transcendence of God.

The Gospel verse Matthew 17:20—“If you have faith as small as a mustard seed, you will say to this mountain, ‘Move from here to there,’ and it will move”—was occasionally raised in polemical exchanges. The verse’s literal challenge—to prove Christian faith by commanding a mountain to move—became the kernel of the Mokattam narrative. While its historicity remains debated, its setting within the Fatimid court aligns with the era’s intellectual atmosphere: a time when faith was tested not only by persecution, but by philosophical scrutiny (Gawdat & Vivian 2013).

8.6 The Socio-Economic Background of the Mokattam Hills

The Mokattam Hills, a limestone ridge east of Cairo, had long supplied stone for Egypt’s monuments. Its name, from the Arabic al-Muqattam (“the cut-off”), described its tiered appearance (Bowman 1996). Beneath its slopes lay Christian hermitages and quarries, some already used by Coptic monks and artisans. The region symbolised both physical solidity and spiritual endurance—an apt setting for a miracle about faith and movement.

As Cairo expanded under the Fatimids, the hills stood at the edge of urban civilisation, marking the threshold between sacred and profane. Later centuries would see the carving of churches directly into its rock, transforming it into a living monument of Coptic devotion. Yet the origins of that sanctification trace back to the events surrounding Pope Abraham and Saint Simon the Tanner.

8.7 Assessment: A Climate of Faith and Intellectual Confidence

The Fatimid era represented one of the most intellectually vibrant and religiously plural periods in Egyptian history. Al-Muʿizz’s policies cultivated dialogue rather than domination, allowing the Coptic Church to articulate its faith within a Muslim-majority empire. The theological trial that would culminate in the Moving of Mokattam Mountain must be understood against this background of mutual confidence and curiosity.

In this environment, miracles were not merely proofs of divine power but public demonstrations of belief in an age where faith and reason intertwined. Whether historical or symbolic, the story of Mokattam epitomises the spirit of the tenth century: a time when Egyptians—Muslim and Christian alike—sought truth through debate, devotion, and courage.

Key References

Bowman, A. (1996) Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC – AD 642. London: British Museum Press.
Brett, M. (2017) The Fatimid Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Gawdat, G. & Vivian, T. (2013) The History of the Patriarchs of the Egyptian Church. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
Halm, H. (1991) The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning. London: I.B. Tauris.
Lev, Y. (1999) “Coptic Rebellions and the Islamisation of Medieval Egypt (8th–10th Centuries).” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, 24, 293–320.
Meinardus, O.F.A. (1965) Christian Egypt: Faith and Life. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
Mikhail, M.S.A. (2014) From Byzantine to Islamic Egypt: Religion, Identity and Politics after the Arab Conquest. London: I.B. Tauris.

Chapter 8 – Egypt under the Fatimids